Using APA Style

In-Text References

1. Citing One Author:

In 1985, Smith studied . . .

Smith (1985) studied . . .

A recent study (Smith, 1985) indicates that . . .

The results of the experiment (Smith, 1985, pp. 73-75) . . .

Smith (1985, chap. 5) gives a summary . . .

2. Citing Two Authors:

Smith and Johnson (1986) found . . .

A recent study (Smith & Johnson, 1986) found . . .

Please note that an ampersand is used instead of the word "and" when the source is placed within parentheses. The ampersand is used only within parenthetical material, within tables and captions, and in the reference list.

3. Citing More Than Two Authors (Up to 6 authors):

For the first citation:

Smith, Johnson, and Brown (1985) found . . .

Wasserstein, Zappulla, Rosen, Gerstman, and Rock (1994) found three differences . . .

One study (Smith, Johnson, & Brown, 1992) based its conclusions . . .

Subsequent citations:

Smith et al. (1992) found that . . .

Wasserstein et al. (1994) found that . . .

One study (Smith et al.., 1992) found . . .

Please follow very carefully the punctuation used in the samples above. The word "et" is not an abbreviated word. It does not take a period. The word "al." is abbreviated, and always takes a period. If "et al." is followed by a year, a comma always follows the period:

"One study (Crosby et al., 1992) stumbled upon the fact that . . ."

However, in the following sample a comma is not needed:

"Crosby et al. (1992) discovered . . . "

4. Citing Six or More Authors: For six or more authors, cite only the surname of the first author followed by "et al." and the year--for the first and subsequent citations. In the reference list, however, provide initials and surnames of the first six authors, and shorten any remaining authors to "et al."

5. Corporate Author: The names of groups that serve as authors (corporations, associations, etc.) are usually spelled out each time they appear in a text citation, but also may be abbreviated after the first citation. If you decide to abbreviate the name of a group author, make sure that you give enough information for the reader to easily locate the entry in the reference list.

Statistics released (NIMH, 1986) seem to show . . .

In the reference list, this entry needs to be found in the N's. The reader shouldn't have to guess where it might be found! Whatever the first word is in the in-text reference, that is the first word in the reference list. Also, NIMH would be spelled out as National Institute of Mental Health.

6. Electronic Sources: If the source being cited was found on the Internet, give author, year, and page number if available. If not, provide paragraph numbers (e.g., ¶ 5, or para. 5). If neither page numbers nor paragraph numbers are visible, cite the heading and the number of the paragraph after the heading.

7. Personal Communications: E-mail messages, letters, telephone conversations, and personal interviews do not provide "recoverable data" and therefore are not included in the reference list . In the text, treat them as a "personal communication" (Robert A. Jones, personal communication, May 22, 2006). Complete date and name (initials) are preferred.

8. No Author Given: Current information (Education Handbook, 1987) shows . . .

Recent studies in this area ("Six Studies on Learning," 1975) seem to show . . .

9. Several Studies by One Author in the Same Year: If, in your dissertation, you cite several studies by John Smith, all written in the year 2005, then you must place these works in alphabetical order in the reference list (by the first word of the work's title) and then designate them as "2005a," "2005b", and "2005c."

Smith (2005a) has pointed out that . . .

Several studies (Brown, 1980; Jones, 2005a, 2005b, 2005c) indicate that . . .

Suppose, however, that you cite only one work by John Smith in your dissertation. But in the reference list to the work where you found his citation, the entry was listed as 2005a. This does not mean that it then becomes "2005a" for your document.

10. Two or More Works Within the Same Parentheses:

Same author:

Several studies (Rittenhouse, 1992, 1998, 2001) found that . . .

Note that the works are separated by commas, not semicolons.

Different authors:

Recent studies (Brown, 1992; Johnson & Smith, 1999; Morrison & Allcort, 2001; Zappas, Jones, & Oglethorpe, 2001) indicate that . . .

Note that the authors' names are placed in alphabetical order, and that the various works are separated by semicolons.

11. Secondary Source:

Merriam (as cited in Harper, 1999) stated that . . .

A recent study (Shertzer, 2001, as cited in Merriam, 2002) points out . . .

12. Second Use of the Source: Many students ask: How often do I have to keep repeating the date, once I have given the author and date? APA suggests that the date should reappear with each new paragraph. If just one study is being discussed, the date should appear just often enough to reassure the reader that the same study is under consideration. However, if several studies are being compared or introduced, it should be very clear to the reader which study is indicated.

Referencing Quotations

Quotations fall into two categories: direct and indirect.

With indirect quotations, be sure to include a page number whenever a specific opinion or important piece of information is credited to a specific author, even though you have paraphrased that information in your own words. Note the punctuation in the following sample:

In his study, Smith (1985) observed that when the child entered the strange environment, disturbed behavior resulted (p. 124).

With direct quotations, always include a page-number reference.

He stated, "The entry of the child into the strange environment causes the disturbed behavior" (Smith, 1985, p. 123), but he did not specify how the behavior was disturbed.

If the quoted material is 40 words or longer in length, it is placed in a block. In a block, the quote is single spaced, no quotation marks are used, and the final punctuation follows the material quoted, not the page number. The page number follows the final punctuation and is not followed by any punctuation.

The block is indented half the distance of the default indent, thus, 1/4 inch.

Olson (2001) stated:

After the child made some friends and identified with the adult in charge, the disturbed behavior decreased. The time factor required for this "settling in" process varied from child to child, depending on the age of the child, the general atmosphere of the new environment, and the temperaments of both the child and the adult involved. (p. 124)

Note that ellipses are not used before or after the quoted material.

Miscellaneous

1. Use of Numbers:

"Use figures to express numbers 10 and above and words to express numbers below 10" (APA, 2001, p. 122). Any numbers referring to time, dates, ages, sample, and points on a scale are written as figures. See pp. 122-130 for all the exceptions to this rule!

In about 3 years

2 weeks ago

2-year-olds

scored 4 on a 7-point scale

2. Percent Symbol: The percent symbol (%) is used for percentages, but "only when it is preceded by a numeral. Use the word percentage when a number is not given" (APA, 2001, p. 140).

The study found that 18% of the rats never left their cages.

However:

The researchers determined the percentage of rats to be insignificant for this particular study.

3. Statistical Symbols: All statistical symbols are set in italics: N, M, df, p, SE, t, F, MS, r, SD, etc. This is true for every place they occur, even tables. Pay particular attention to whether the symbol is uppercase or lowercase. A t test is lower case even if it begins a sentence. See APA, 2001, pp. 140-143.

A one-tailed t test was used to determine whether a significant difference existed (p = .191). [Note that t test is not hyphenated.]

t tests provided sufficient information for each sample.

However, note the hyphen here:

The author's t-test results could not be explained by . . .

4. Use of "I": Do not use "the experimenters" or "the researcher" when you mean yourself. This can be ambiguous and "may give the impression that you did not take part in your own study. Instead, use a personal pronoun: 'We instructed the participants'" (APA, 2001, pp. 37, 38). However, do not use the editorial "we" when you mean only yourself. Use I (p. 39).

5. Enumerations: Short enumerations, which identify elements in a series, are set off by lowercase letters within parentheses (see APA, 2001, p. 116).

The participant's three choices were (a) working with another participant, (b) working with a team, and (c) working alone.

However, longer enumerations are treated like numbered paragraphs, with each point starting on a new line and indented:

Using the learned helplessness theory, we predicted that the depressed and non-depressed participants would make the following judgments of control:

1. Individuals who . . . [paragraph continues]

2. Non-depressed persons exposed to . . .

3. Depressed persons exposed to . . .

4. Depressed and non-depressed participants in the . . .

(see APA Publication Manual, 2001, p. 117)

Tables and Figures

1. Study very carefully APA rules for tables and figures (pp. 147-172, and 176-188). Many helpful examples are included. In general, it is not necessary to use the table "function" in your software. Instead, use underlining and the tab key (and decimal tabs) to create your tables.

2. A solid line at the bottom of the table signifies that it is complete.

3. All tables must be titled and numbered. Numbers run consecutively throughout the dissertation. Designations such as 3-1 or 2b are not used.

4. The table's title is placed in italics.

5. All tables and figures must be introduced in the text before they can appear. Once a table/figure has been introduced, it must appear on that page or the next page.

6. Skip three blank lines (at least) before and after tables that appear on a page with text. Tables that are ½ page or longer in length may appear on page alone without text.

7. Tables too wide for a page made be turned broadside. However, the page number appears in its usual place. The table faces "out," rather than "in."

8. Notes to tables take three forms: a general note that refers to the whole table, a specific note that refers to a particular column or row, and a probability note, which indicates the results of tests of significance. See the sample table below, which displays all three types of notes.

9. If a table or figure is adapted or borrowed in full from another source, it must be accompanied by a note at the bottom giving credit to the original author. See APA, 2001, pp. 174, 175 (and the sample below), for the proper form for this note. It does not follow the same form as an in-text reference or bibliographic entry.

10. A table may be continued to a second page only if it filled the first page completely. If the table needs to be continued, type this at the very top of the continued part: Table X—Continued.

Table X

Recognition Memory for Words and Nonwords as a Function of

Age and Viewing Condition

_____________________________________________________________

Viewing

condition	Adultsa	Childrenb	Difference

_____________________________________________________________

Words

Dim	91	73	18*

Moderate	88	63	25

Bright	61	45	16

_____________________________________________________________

Nonwords

Dim	78	58	20

Moderate	65	62	3

Bright	80	51	29

_____________________________________________________________

Note. The values represent mean percentages of correctly recognized

words or nonwords. From "Table Example 4" (p. 152), Publication Manual of

the American Psychological Association, 2002, Washington, DC: American

Psychological Association.

aAdults were 18-21 years old. bChildren were 12-14 years old.

*p < .05.

Reference List

1. Remember that every source cited in the text must be included in the reference list. Conversely, additional source materials, not cited, should not be included in the list (see APA, 2001, p. 215).

2. Give the city and state (or city only, if well-known) for publishers of books, brochures, and other non-periodical publications. Use the official two-letter U.S. Postal Service abbreviations for states, with no periods (see APA, 2001, p. 217; see p. 218). A "short form" is used for the publisher.

Mitchell, T. R., & Larson, J. R., Jr. (1987). People in organizations: An introduction to organizational behavior (3rd ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill.

Note: Do not use "NY" for New York in this case. That would indicate the state. What is needed is the city. Cities are not abbreviated.

Gibbs, J. T., & Huang, L. N. (Eds.). (1991). Child of color: Psychological interventions with minority youth. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

3. References by the same author with the same publication date are arranged alphabetically by title in the reference list and assigned lowercase letters–a, b, c, etc. (see APA, 2001, p. 221). The year along with the letter also appears in each in-text reference.

Smith, B. J. (2000a). Specific concerns . . .

Smith, B. J. (2000b). Trying to overcome . . .

4. Use italics—not underlining—for the titles of books and journals/

magazines. To underline something indicates to the typesetter that those words should be placed in italics. You are the typesetter, in this case.

5. One entry should not be split between two pages.

6. Several references by one author are arranged by year of publication, the earliest first—not alphabetically by title.

7. Entries are single spaced. Double space between entries.

The following samples for reference-list entries are taken from the

American Psychological Association's Publication Manual,

5th ed., pp. 239-281.

1. Journal article, two authors, with volume and issue number

Klimoski, R., & Palmer, S. (1993). The ADA and the hiring process in organizations. Consulting Psychology Journal: Practice and Research, 45(2), 10-36.

Note that there is no space between the volume number (45), which is placed in italics, and the issue number (2), which is not in italics.

2. Magazine article

Kandel, E. R., & Squire, L. R. (2000, November 10). Neuroscience: Breaking down scientific barriers to the study of brain and mind. Science, 290, 1113-1120.

3. Newsletter article, no author

The new health-care lexicon. (1993, August/September). Copy	Editor, 4, 1-2.

Alphabetize works with no author by the first significant word in the title. In this case, "New." Articles such as "A," "The," and "An" are ignored (but not deleted) when alphabetizing.

4. Newspaper article, no author, discontinuous pages

New drug appears to sharply cut risk of death from heart failure. (1993, July 15). The Washington Post, p. A12, A19.

Note: In the text, use a short title for the parenthetical citation: ("New Drug," 1993).

5. Citation of a work discussed in a secondary source:

Give only the secondary source in the reference list. In the text, however, name the original work, and give a citation for the secondary source. For example, if Seidenberg and McClelland's work is cited in Coltheart et al. and you did not the read the work cited, list the Coltheart et al. reference in the reference list.

In the text:

Seidenberg and McClelland's study (as cited in Coltheart, Curtis, Atkins, & Haller, 1993) . . .

In the reference list:

Coltheart, M., Curtis, B., Atkins, P., & Haller, M. (1993). Models of reading aloud: Dual-route and parallel-distributed-processing approaches. Psychological Review, 100, 589-608.

6. Entire book, revised edition

Beck, C. A. J., & Sales, B. D. (2001). Family mediation: Facts, myths, and future prospects (Rev. ed.). Washingon, DC: American Psychological Association.

7. Entry in an encyclopedia or dictionary

Bergmann, P. G. (1993). Relativity. In The new encyclopaedia Brittanica (Vol. 26, pp. 501-508). Chicago: Encyclopaedia Britannica.

8. Brochure, corporate author

Research and Training Center on Independent Living. (1993). Guidelines for reporting and writing about people with disabilities (4th ed.) [Brochure]. Lawrence, KS: Author.

9. Article or chapter in an edited book, two editors

Bjork, R. A. (1989). Retrieval inhibition as an adaptive mechanism in human memory. In H. L. Roediger III & F. I. M. Craik (Eds.), Varieties of memory & consciousness (pp. 309-330). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.

10. Report available from ERIC

Mead, J. V. (1992). Looking at old photographs: Investigating the teacher tales that novice teachers bring with them (Report No. NCRTL-RR-92-4). East Lansing, MI: National Center for Research on Teacher Learning. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED 346082)

Note that no punctuation follows the ERIC number in parentheses at end.

11. Report from government institute as group author

National Institute of Mental Health. (1990). Clinical training in serious mental illness (DHHS Publication No. ADM 90-1679). Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office.

12. Unpublished manuscript with a university cited

Depret, E. F., & Fiske, S. T. (1993). Perceiving the powerful: Intriguing individuals versus threatening groups. Unpublished manuscript, University of Massachusetts at Amherst.

13. Unpublished doctoral dissertation

Wilfley, D. C. (1989). Interpersonal analyses of bulimia: Normal-weight and obese. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Missouri, Columbia.

14. Doctoral dissertation abstracted in DAI

Ross, D. F. (1990). Unconscious transference and mistaken identity: When a witness misidentifies a familiar but innocent person from a lineup (Doctoral dissertation, Cornell University, 1990). Dissertation Abstracts International, 51, 417.

15. Television broadcast

Crystal, L. (Executive Producer). (1993, October 11). The MacNeil/Lehrer news hour (Television broadcast). New York and Washington, DC: Public Broadcasting Service.

16. Internet article based on a print source

VandenBos, G., Knapp, S., & Doe, J. (2001). Role of reference elements in the selection of resources by psychology undergraduates [Electronic version]. Journal of Bibliographic Research, 5, 117-123.

17. Article in an Internet-only newsletter

Glueckauf, R. L., Whitton, J., Baxton, J., Kain, J., Vogelgesang, S., Hudson, M., et al. (1998, July). Videocounseling for families of rural teens with epilepsy—Project update. Telehealth News, 2(2). Retrieved from http://www.telehealth.net/subscribe/newslettr_4a.html#1

18. Multipage document created by private organization, no date

Great New Milford (Ct) Area Healthy Community 2000, Task Force on Teen and Adolescent Issues. (n.d.). Who has time for a family meal? You do! Retrieved October 5, 2000, from http://www.familymealtime.org

19. Message posted to an electronic mailing list

Hammong, T. (2000, November 20). YAHC: Yandle Parameters, DOI Genres, etc. Message posted to Ref-Links electronic mailing list, archived at http://www.doi.org/mail-archive/ref-
link/msg00088.html

20. Court case

Lessard v. Schmidt, 349 F. Supp. 1078 (E.D. Wis. 1972).

The text citation for this would be:

(Lessard v. Schmidt, 1972)

21. Appealed case

Durflinger v. Artiles, 563 F. Supp. 322 (D. Kan. 1981), aff'd, 727 F.2d 888 (10th Cir. 1984).

The text citation for this would be:

Durflinger v. Artiles (1981/1984)

22. Statutes

Mental Health Systems Act, 42 U.S.C. § 9401 (1988).

The text citation for this would be:

Mental Health Systems Act (1988)

23. Statute in a federal code

American With Disabilities Act of 1990, 42 U.S.C.A. § 12101 et seq. (West 1993).